- Explain these concepts in project writing: (a) abstract (b) preface (c) index (d) literature review (e) postscript (f) appendices (g) acknowledgements (h) blur (j) two types of referencing with examples
INTRODUCTION
Project writing is the creation of a research project. A research is an objective, systematic and scientific means of seeking information with a view to expanding the frontiers of knowledge. Thus, a research project which could be a written paper or a multimedia presentation is the end result of a thinking process. The following concepts in project writing would now be explained.
ABSTRACT
This is a very brief synopsis (summary) of the entire work, which aims at giving the reader a clear and precise idea of what the work is all about. It goes straight to the point and it is not as elaborate as the introduction. Some key points about an abstract are;
i. It is the most widely published and most read part of the study.
ii. It is best written towards the end, but not last.
iii. It entails a brief but comprehensive description of the problems addressed the methods of solving, ones results and conclusions.
iv. It usually doesn’t contain references, but however, if a reference is necessary, its details should be included into the text of the abstract.
PREFACE
Firstly, it should be noted that preface is the same as introduction. It is a proper exposition of the work. Thus, its main aim is to alert or inform the audience on what one intends doing. Some key points a preface is;
i. One must not overestimate the readers’ familiarity with the topic.
ii. It may help to imagine ones audience when writing a preface.
iii. It should be interesting, as if one bores the reader here; there are less likely chances to revive such person’s interest in further sections.
iv. Basically, a preface summarises the question in general, as well as justifies its importance.
INDEX (Name and Subject Index)
This is a compact list of key terms, words and concepts used in a book, written at the back of the book in an alphabetical order. The words are systematically written with the pages in which they occur, also written beside them. Then main purpose of an index is to easily locate the pages that such words occur in the book. For example;
LITERATURE REVIEW
This is basically a sum-up of materials (all those) to be used such as journals, periodicals, books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries etc. in a research project. Its main aim is to provide information on why the books are best or ideal for the project, and also why they could be limited. Some key points about a literature review are;
i. It evaluates the major relevant ideas in a book to be used as regards the project.
ii. The books in this section are to be organized by idea; not by the authors or publication.
iii. It enables the researcher to become conversant with the literature in his chosen area of study.
POSTSCRIPT
As the name implies, this is a section of the research project, usually at the end of the work, which simply contains any extra additional points that may occur in the researcher’s mind within the course of the project, or probably even after.
APPENDICES (appendix)
This is a section of the research project that would include any material that is not too potent to be included in the main body of the thesis or the literature review, but;
· ...which also influences the smooth development of one’s presentation.
· ...is important to justify the results of one’s thesis.
· ...should be available for notification by the examiners.
Examples of material or information that could be contained in the “appendices” could be; tables of data, lengthy mathematical or logical proofs, analytical statistics e.t.c.
ACKNOWLEDEMENT
This is a vital section at the beginning pages of a project that does mainly one thing; “appreciation of major influences as regards the research work”. It could entail the following;
· Notification of any collaborative effort on any particular section(s).
· Thanks to those who may have helped in one way or another by providing such essentials as food, education, finance, help (labour), advice e.t.c.
BLUR
This refers to the various comments gotten from people about the book, when it has been initially sent out for general review and criticism. It is normally written in front or behind. An example of a blur is given below;
· This book is a mind blower. It strikes at the heart of salient political issues. (Carl Rovers; C.E.O. Juggernaut investments)
· My countenance changed after reading this book. My philosophy of politics is drastically influenced. Kudos to Charles; he’s such a prolific writer. (Faith Donaldson; Wall street banker)
· Do books like this still exist? I am personally challenged. Thanks Charles, for this eye opener. (Branson Keith; Political activist)
Project writing is the creation of a research project. A research is an objective, systematic and scientific means of seeking information with a view to expanding the frontiers of knowledge. Thus, a research project which could be a written paper or a multimedia presentation is the end result of a thinking process. The following concepts in project writing would now be explained.
ABSTRACT
This is a very brief synopsis (summary) of the entire work, which aims at giving the reader a clear and precise idea of what the work is all about. It goes straight to the point and it is not as elaborate as the introduction. Some key points about an abstract are;
i. It is the most widely published and most read part of the study.
ii. It is best written towards the end, but not last.
iii. It entails a brief but comprehensive description of the problems addressed the methods of solving, ones results and conclusions.
iv. It usually doesn’t contain references, but however, if a reference is necessary, its details should be included into the text of the abstract.
PREFACE
Firstly, it should be noted that preface is the same as introduction. It is a proper exposition of the work. Thus, its main aim is to alert or inform the audience on what one intends doing. Some key points a preface is;
i. One must not overestimate the readers’ familiarity with the topic.
ii. It may help to imagine ones audience when writing a preface.
iii. It should be interesting, as if one bores the reader here; there are less likely chances to revive such person’s interest in further sections.
iv. Basically, a preface summarises the question in general, as well as justifies its importance.
INDEX (Name and Subject Index)
This is a compact list of key terms, words and concepts used in a book, written at the back of the book in an alphabetical order. The words are systematically written with the pages in which they occur, also written beside them. Then main purpose of an index is to easily locate the pages that such words occur in the book. For example;
INDEX
NAME (A) PAGES
Abacus 29, 84
Adams, Paradox of 5
………………….. ……………
………………….. ……………
(Z)
Zondervan 91, 246
LITERATURE REVIEW
This is basically a sum-up of materials (all those) to be used such as journals, periodicals, books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries etc. in a research project. Its main aim is to provide information on why the books are best or ideal for the project, and also why they could be limited. Some key points about a literature review are;
i. It evaluates the major relevant ideas in a book to be used as regards the project.
ii. The books in this section are to be organized by idea; not by the authors or publication.
iii. It enables the researcher to become conversant with the literature in his chosen area of study.
POSTSCRIPT
As the name implies, this is a section of the research project, usually at the end of the work, which simply contains any extra additional points that may occur in the researcher’s mind within the course of the project, or probably even after.
APPENDICES (appendix)
This is a section of the research project that would include any material that is not too potent to be included in the main body of the thesis or the literature review, but;
· ...which also influences the smooth development of one’s presentation.
· ...is important to justify the results of one’s thesis.
· ...should be available for notification by the examiners.
Examples of material or information that could be contained in the “appendices” could be; tables of data, lengthy mathematical or logical proofs, analytical statistics e.t.c.
ACKNOWLEDEMENT
This is a vital section at the beginning pages of a project that does mainly one thing; “appreciation of major influences as regards the research work”. It could entail the following;
· Notification of any collaborative effort on any particular section(s).
· Thanks to those who may have helped in one way or another by providing such essentials as food, education, finance, help (labour), advice e.t.c.
BLUR
This refers to the various comments gotten from people about the book, when it has been initially sent out for general review and criticism. It is normally written in front or behind. An example of a blur is given below;
· This book is a mind blower. It strikes at the heart of salient political issues. (Carl Rovers; C.E.O. Juggernaut investments)
· My countenance changed after reading this book. My philosophy of politics is drastically influenced. Kudos to Charles; he’s such a prolific writer. (Faith Donaldson; Wall street banker)
· Do books like this still exist? I am personally challenged. Thanks Charles, for this eye opener. (Branson Keith; Political activist)
TWO TYPES OF REFERENCING (With Examples)
A reference is an analysis which enables the reader to know the source of any borrowed statement, fact or idea within the text of a report, project or thesis. There are two broadly used styles of referencing, which are;
i. The American psychological association style of referencing (the A.P.A style)
ii. The Kate Turabian style of referencing (also known as the Chicago style)
The A.P.A. style
This referencing style makes use of what is called “in text” writing. When one wants to refer to a statement from any source, it would be included within the body of the text. Before or after the borrowed statement has been written in inverted commas, the author’s name, publication date and page number of the book which contains the statement being referred to, follows enclosed in a bracket. For example;
A reference is an analysis which enables the reader to know the source of any borrowed statement, fact or idea within the text of a report, project or thesis. There are two broadly used styles of referencing, which are;
i. The American psychological association style of referencing (the A.P.A style)
ii. The Kate Turabian style of referencing (also known as the Chicago style)
The A.P.A. style
This referencing style makes use of what is called “in text” writing. When one wants to refer to a statement from any source, it would be included within the body of the text. Before or after the borrowed statement has been written in inverted commas, the author’s name, publication date and page number of the book which contains the statement being referred to, follows enclosed in a bracket. For example;
Universally, religious people believe and claim that God himself has revealed to mankind what is morally good and morally bad. In accordance, the major challenge is that there are conflicting accounts from various religious groups. In other words, ““God has become an object of struggle among His creations”“ (Clarkson, 1984, 26). The way forward as regards the...........
In situations where the borrowed statements are lengthy (maybe more than two lines) then the long quote could be paraphrased and written in a gulf form within the body of the text. For example;
Philosophy of religion represents a cardinal point where the issues as regarding the other worldly are expressed. In order to understand the nature of the philosophy of religion, some Ideas such as this should be considered;
“Philosophy of religion is a second
Order activity which stands on its
own and separated from its subject
matter. Like science, it stems from
the organization of certain simple
laws thereby resulting in a major
framework”. (Hick.J, 1996, 120)
In order to comprehend how Philosophy of Religion is different from other disciplines that handle the subject matter of Religion, we would have to take a critical look at what...
Afterwards, at the end of the write-up or assignment, all the books cited or simply used (e.g. dictionary, encyclopaedia e.t.c) would be; Arranged alphabetically (by author’s surname); Then, the year of publication (in a bracket); Then, the title/name of the book (underlined); Then, the town of publication and the publishing company (enclosed in a bracket)...for example
Reference(s)
1. Carnap.R, (1992) Scientific objectivity and theory, (London: Richardson gate publishers inc)
2. Ladison.F.U, (1965) Theoretical empiricism, (Bolton: Ogilvy and sons publishing company)
3. Popper,K, (1824) Causality and methodology (Canterbury: Rutherford publishers inc)
1. Carnap.R, (1992) Scientific objectivity and theory, (London: Richardson gate publishers inc)
2. Ladison.F.U, (1965) Theoretical empiricism, (Bolton: Ogilvy and sons publishing company)
3. Popper,K, (1824) Causality and methodology (Canterbury: Rutherford publishers inc)
The Chicago style
This mode of referencing is best used for assignments which will have several chapters (like a 20 – 50 page assignment). It is also known as “end-of-chapter” referencing. This referencing style makes use of “end notes”. In the process of writing the assignment, any borrowed statement would be numbered consecutively as they occur. The numbers would be placed in brackets at the end of the statement after the full stop.
This mode of referencing is best used for assignments which will have several chapters (like a 20 – 50 page assignment). It is also known as “end-of-chapter” referencing. This referencing style makes use of “end notes”. In the process of writing the assignment, any borrowed statement would be numbered consecutively as they occur. The numbers would be placed in brackets at the end of the statement after the full stop.
Afterwards, at the end of each chapter, all the numbered statements would be referenced (in an “end note”) according to their numbers within the main text. Unlike the A.P.A. style, referencing would be done at the end of each chapter and not at the final end page of the assignment/write-up.
Also within the “end notes”, some key terms are used. The main ones are;
· “ibid”: This term implies that the book which was immediately and formerly referenced, is exactly again referred to. In this case, only the pages could be different. For example; if I referenced a book by “Ogundowole” (pg 16) in the number 2 of the end note and I still want to reference the same book in the number 3 of the end note, instead of me writing the full referencing details again, I would simply write “ibid. Pg 35”.
· “op cit”: This term implies that a book which has been quoted earlier before (but not immediately-formerly) is being re-referenced. In this case, the “name of the author”, “op.cit.” and the “page of the book” is written in a systematic manner. For example, if I referenced a book by “Bertrand Russell” (pg 60) in the number 5 of the end note and I again want to reference the same book in number 12 of the end note, instead of me writing the full referencing details again, I would simply just write “Bertrand Russell, op.cit., pg 214”.
...below is an example of how the Chicago style of referencing works.
Natural law (law of nature) has been defined as a law whose content is set by nature and is thereby universal. (1) Natural law entails the use of rationality to evaluate human nature as well as deduce binding rules of moral behaviour. Positive law, which refers to man-made law, is not the same as natural law. This is due to the fact that positive law derives from natural law, and that it is the law of a given political community, society, nation or state. Hence, natural law is a standard by which positive law can be criticized. Several scholars have made immense contribution in the evolution of natural law. For example, Plato says “we live in an orderly universe. At the basis of this orderly universe or nature are the forms and most fundamentally, the form of the good which Plato describes as “the brightest region of being”. (2) Aristotle also emphasized the distinction between “nature” on the one hand, and “law”, “custom” or “convention” on the other. What the law commanded varied from place to place, but what was by “nature” should be the same everywhere. (3) Cicero says that “both justice and law derive their origin from God. So, wicked and unjust statutes are not laws in any way. (4) Therefore, Natural law obliges us to contribute to the general good of the larger society. From the fore-going, one thing is obviously clear about natural law, which is, it aims at preserving and protecting the natural rights of man, thereby making life more worthwhile...
...at the end of the chapter, the following end note reference would ensue. The page number(s) would be included as it was not shown within the body of the text (unlike the A.P.A. style).
Reference(s)
1. Higgins. T, (1995) Natural law ideals (Tema: Rock publishers Inc) pg. 85.
2. Randle. B, (1971) Morality in Ancient Greece (Overton: Bluebird publishing company) pg.60
3. ibid. Pg 82.
4. Higgins Thomas, op.cit, pg 9
1. Higgins. T, (1995) Natural law ideals (Tema: Rock publishers Inc) pg. 85.
2. Randle. B, (1971) Morality in Ancient Greece (Overton: Bluebird publishing company) pg.60
3. ibid. Pg 82.
4. Higgins Thomas, op.cit, pg 9
